LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


or  THE 

UNIVERSITY  i 

•KV   -     OF 


THE   SUMMER  CAMP. 


(Sec  page    84; 

Frontispicc^ 


The  Sanitation  of  a 
Country  House 


BY 

DR.  HARVEY  B.  BASHORE 
t» 

Inspector  for  State   Board  of  Health  of  Pennsylvania 
Author  of  "Outlines  of  Rural  Hygiene" 


"Eldest-born  of  powers  divine, 
Blessed  Hygeia,  be  it  mine 
To  enjoy  what  thou  canst  give, 
And  henceforth  with  thee  to  live  !" 

— COWPER 


TJOUtb  Sixteen  irilustratione 

FIRST    EDITION 

FIRST   THOUSAND 


NEW    YORK 

JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS 
LONDON  :  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED 


OF  TV'E 


Copyright,  1905 
BY 

HARVEY  B.  BASHORE 


PRINTED    BY    ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    NEW    YORK 


To 
parents, 

who  have  done  so  much  for  me, 

this  little  volume 

is  most  affectionately 

dedicated. 


PREFACE. 


WHILE  municipal  hygiene  has  made 
much  progress  during  the  last  hundred 
years,  the  rural  districts  still  cling  to 
their  old-fashioned  ways,  still  trust  in 
Providence  and  the  "old  oaken 
bucket." 

When  we  find  that  our  summer  re- 
sorts on  seashore  and  mountain  some- 
times bring  sickness  instead  of  health, 
that  our  springs  and  our  brooks  may 
bear  the  germs  of  disease;  when  we 
find  that  there  are  rural  localities  which 
have  more  typhoid  fever  per  popula- 


vi  Preface. 

tion  than  our  great  cities,  that  there 
is  actually  less  danger  of  getting  ty- 
phoid fever  in  New  York  City  than  in 
a  good  many  country  places;  when 
we  find  that  cities  are  spending  millions 
for  filter  plants  and  yet  receive  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  their  typhoid  from 
the  country;  when  we  find  all  this  and 
more,  too,  to  be  actual  facts,  is  it  not 
worth  while  to  think  about  sanitary 
reform? 

To  make  the  country  as  healthy  as 
the  city — contradictory  as  it  may  seem 
— is  the  aim  of  this  work. 

WEST  FAIRVIEW,  May  i,  1905. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     THE  LOCATION i 

II.     THE  HOUSE 13 

III.  THE  WATER-SUPPLY 29 

IV.  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE 47 

V.     THE  SURROUNDINGS 71 

VI.     THE  SUMMER  CAMP 84 

vii 


V     OF  THE 

UNIVERSE  I 

OF 

w 


Sanitation  of  a  Country 
House. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   LOCATION. 

WHEN  one  comes  to  build  a  house 
in  the  city  he  is  more  or  less  restricted 
by  the  requirements  of  the  city;  and 
the  kind  of  neighborhood,  business  and 
social  advantages  are  weighty  points. 
The  sanitary  conditions  surrounding  his 
house  are  little  under  his  own  hand; 
the  city  authorities  look  after  such 
things  with  the  paternal  care  of  patri- 
archal times.  He  buys  a  lot  in  the 
locality  selected  and  builds  thereon  his 


2      Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

house,  facing  the  street  of  course, 
whether  it  is  east  or  west,  north  or 
south.  Over  the  adjoining  buildings  he 
has  no  control — they  may  overtop  his 
own  and  keep  out  the  sun,  they  may 
prevent  him  from  having  a  fine  view 
across  a  neighboring  river,  but  for  this 
there  is  no  remedy;  he  must  confine 
himself  to  his  own  narrow  lot.  He  has, 
however,  the  consolation  that  there  are 
some  compensations  to  be  derived  from 
this  state  of  affairs;  for  example,  the 
network  of  sewers,  and  trenches  of 
various  kinds,  keep  soil  drainage  good, 
and  save  him  the  troubles  that  might 
arise  from  an  otherwise  damp  soil.  The 
city  also  sees  to  it  that  he  has  good  (?) 
water  and  that  his  household  wastes 
are  quickly  disposed — got  out  of  sight 
at  least. 

When  it  comes  to  a  country  house  the 


The  Location.  3 

whole  thing  is  changed:  the  owner  alone 
is  responsible  for  every  condition  in  and 
around  his  premises,  and  can  select  at 
the  beginning  a  location  favored  by 
proper  sanitary  conditions.  But  in 
order  to  be  able  to  do  this  one  must 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  sanitary 
methods  of  house-building. 

In  the  first  place,  the  general  topo- 
graphical features  of  the  proposed  site 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  and 
individual  taste  counts  for  much  in 
such  a  case.  There  are  certain  points 
which  should  be  held  in  mind;  for 
instance,  one  would  hardly  select  a 
narrow  valley,  a  low  meadow,  or  the 
north  side  of  a  high  hill  for  a  dwelling- 
place.  Common  sense  has  taught  us 
that  a  slight  elevation,  having  proper 
surface  drainage,  with  protecting  hills 
or  woods  on  the  north,  is  far  more  pref- 


4     Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

erable;  and  then  if  we  add  a  stretch  of 
water — lake,  river,  bay,  or  ocean — to 
the  foreground  of  the  east  or  south,  we 
would  have  a  pretty  fair  location  as  far 
as  the  surface  is  concerned. 

Whatever  the  location,  it  is  well, 
very  well  indeed,  to  pay  considerable 
attention  to  the  outlook  from  the  pro- 
posed site,  for  fine  scenery  is  not  to  be 
despised  as  a  sanitary  measure.  A  fine 
view  from  one's  dining-room  window 
certainly  acts  as  an  aid  to  digestion,  if 
it  does  nothing  more. 

If  there  is  no  natural  barrier  on  the 
north,  this  deficiency  may  be  made  up 
by  planting  a  grove  of  evergreens,  spruce 
or  pine  or  fir,  which  will  keep  off  the 
cold  winds  better  than  anything  else; 
then  a  grove  of  trees  makes  a  fine  recrea- 
tion-ground, which  furnishes  wholesome 
pleasure  to  man,  woman,  or  child. 


The  Location.  5 

The  preferred  direction  which  a 
house  should  face,  as  I  have  indicated, 
is  more  or  less  southerly  in  the  country 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  on  account  of 
the  prevailing  westerly  winds  of  this 
region,  and  the  necessity  for  getting  as 
much  sunlight  as  possible  in  the  great- 
est number  of  rooms. 

After  one  has  a  good  idea  of  the 
surface  conditions  of  the  projected  site, 
some  study  should  be  expended  on  the 
character  of  the  subsoil  and  rock  of  the 
place;  the  principal  sanitary  factors 
in  this  connection  being  the  water  and 
air  in  the  soil,  their  relations  to  each 
other  and  to  the  surface.  The  water 
in  the  soil  is  divided  for  sanitary  study 
into  the  ground-water  and  the  ground- 
moisture. 

The  ground-water — the  first  worth 
considering — is  that  underground  sheet 


6      Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

of  water  which  completely  fills  all  the 
interstices  of  the  soil;  its  height  is 
readily  told  by  the  height  of  water 
in  neighboring  wells.  This  water  is  in 
constant  motion  to  the  nearest  water- 
courses, and  also  rises  and  falls  with 
the  changing  seaons.  The  ground- 
water,  unless  very  near  the  surface, 
has  not  much  effect  on  a  building  site 
except  when  it  comes  to  procuring 
drinking-water  from  wells;  then  it 
becomes  of  cardinal  importance  and  is 
treated  in  this  relation  in  a  future 
chapter. 

The  other  item,  ground-moisture,  is 
that  moisture  which  is  in  the  upper 
layers  of  the  soil — above  the  ground- 
water  level — due  to  the  interstices  con- 
taining both  air  and  water;  and  it  is 
this  which  causes  damp  and  unhealthy 
foundations.  This  dampness  of  the  soil 


The  Location.  7 

is  derived  mostly  from  surface-waters 
percolating  from  above,  and  tends  to 
rise  by  capillary  action  and  hydro- 
static pressure.  Ground-moisture  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  absorptive 
power  of  the  soil  and  inversly  as  its 
permeability;  consequently  it  is  evident 
that  by  increasing  this  permeability 
we  can  diminish  the  dampness:  and 
this  is  what  we  do  by  trenching  and 
tiling.  This  undue  dampness  is,  as  has 
been  mentioned  before,  supposed  to  be 
a  potent  factor  in  the  causation  of 
rheumatism,  and  it  has  also  been  claimed 
that  there  is  a  relationship  between 
soil-dampness  and  phthisis.  Although 
we  know  that  this  disease  is  due  to  a 
specific  germ,  it  is  quite  likely  that 
damp  dwellings  may  so  prepare  the 
individual  as  to  less  easily  withstand 
the  inroads  of  the  germs. 


8      Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

The  ground-air  is  interesting  to  the 
sanitary  house-builder  in  two  phases, 
namely,  its  composition  and  movement. 
It  is  made  up  partly  of  gases  arising 
from  decomposition  and  putrefaction 
processes  which  are  continually  going 
on  in  the  soil,  especially  in  that  which 
is  contaminated  with  organic  waste; 
and  the  resultant  gases  diffuse  rapidly 
through  the  surrounding  locality. 
Carbon  dioxide,  which  is  one  of  the 
gases  formed,  is  always  greater  in 
ground-air  than  in  the  atmosphere, 
while  oxygen,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
decreased  and  nitrogen  remains  about 
the  same.  In  addition  to  the  gases 
there  are  certain  amounts  of  ammonia, 
hydrogen,  ammonium  sulphide,  and 
marsh-gas  which  go  to  make  up  ground- 
air;  and  thus  differing  greatly  in  compo- 
sition from  the  atmosphere,  it  is  surely 


The  Location.  9 

not  suitable  for  breathing  purposes.  In 
addition,  too,  we  are  not  certain  that 
it  does  not,  at  times,  contain  disease- 
germs. 

The  second  disturbing  factor  of  the 
ground-air — its  movement — is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  wind  blowing  against 
the  surface  soil  sets  this  underground 
air  in  motion;  likewise,  too,  any  change 
in  the  ground-water  level  will  occasion 
fluctuations  in  the  air  above.  During 
a  heavy  rain,  for  example,  the  surface- 
waters  flowing  downward  press  upon 
the  ground- air  and  compress  it.  Under- 
neath a  dwelling,  if  the  cellar  is  not 
properly  protected,  there  is  an  area  of 
diminished  pressure,  and  consequently 
the  ground-air  pours  into  the  cellar 
and  thence  into  the  house  above.  In 
winter,  during  heavy  frost,  similar  con- 


io   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

ditions  exist,  when  the  frozen  ground  is 
more  or  less  impervious;  and  then  the 
warm,  unfrozen,  and  porous  part  under- 
neath the  house  readily  facilitates  the 
ascent  of  the  air  below. 

With  this  knowledge  of  the  ground 
air  and  water  it  becomes  evident  that 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  various 
soils  when  it  comes  to  building  a  house. 
A  clay  soil,  such  as  is  found  in  the  al- 
luvial deposit  of  our  river  valleys  and 
seacoast,  and  that  resulting  from  the 
decomposition  of  limestone  and  certain 
other  rock,  is  almost  impermeable,  and 
having  considerable  absorptive  power 
and  being  capable  of  holding  much 
moisture,  it  is  consequently  damp;  it  is 
also  cold  on  account  of  its  low  specific 
heat  and  constant  evaporation.  For 
these  reasons  there  is  a  great  tendency 
to  rheumatic  complaints  in  people 


The  Location.  1 1 

living  on  such  a  soil.  It  has  been  found, 
however,  that  much  of  this  soil  danger 
may  be  reduced  by  efficient  subsoil 
drainage,  for  as  the  water  is  withdrawn 
from  the  soil  more  air  is  admitted  and 
greater  dry  ness  follows. 

When  we  come  to  the  various  beds 
of  sandstone,  gravel,  and  shale  just 
the  opposite  condition  exists,  namely, 
a  warm,  dry,  and  porous  soil.  Natural 
drainage  is  so  good  and  the  ground- 
water  so  low  that  scarcely  any  prepa- 
ration is  necessary  in  order  to  get  a 
dry  foundation.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  soils,  being  so  very  porous,  are 
liable  to  contamination  by  water  and 
air  from  neighboring  cesspools  and 
privies,  and  consequently  the  usual 
care  is  needed  in  this  respect,  especially 
if  polluted  soil  exists  anywhere  near 
the  place.  Other  soils  may  need  other 


1 2    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

lines  of  investigation,  but  the  fore- 
going illustrate  the  method  of  procedure. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  each  and  every 
location  should  receive  individual 
study  with  reference  to  its  own  pecu- 
liarities and  possibilities. 


CHAPTER  II; 

THE   HOUSE. 

AFTER  the  site  for  a  dwelling  has 
been  selected,  the  first  thing  is  its 
preparation,  which  consists  in  taking 
measures  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the 
deleterious  influences  of  the  ground- 
moisture  and  ground-air  mentioned  in 
Chapter  I.  In  the  beginning,  then,  in 
order  to  prepare  a  place  for  building 
it  is  necessary  to  drain  thoroughly  the 
subsoil  about  the  foundation.  This  is 
readily  done  by  digging  trenches  sur- 
rounding the  proposed  foundation  of 
such  a  depth  as  to  reach  a  foot  or  two 

below  the  bottom  of  the  wall  and  hav- 

13 


14   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

ing  an  outlet  in  some  lower  level  or 
stream.  The  trenches  should  be  filled 
for  a  foot  or  so  with  broken  stone,  or 
a  course  of  drain-tiles  may  be  laid  at 
the  bottom.  Probably  filling  with 
broken  stone  for  half  the  depth  and 
then  covering  with  a  layer  of  ashes  is 
the  most  effective  method.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  being  very  cheap,  for 
stones  and  ashes  can  be  got  almost 
anywhere  in  the  East,  at  least,  for 
the  asking.  The  surface  drainage,  too, 
must  receive  considerable  attention; 
sufficient  grading  being  done  so  as  to 
remove  all  water  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. 

After  this  work  follows  the  founda- 
tion proper.  The  common  way  of  mak- 
ing this  is  simply  to  dig  the  cellar  the 
required  size  and  depth  and  build  the 
wall  around  this  excavation,  and  in 


The  House.  '  17 

some  very  dry,  porous  soils  such  a 
crude  method  seems  to  give  a  fair 
foundation;  but  in  most  soils  and  in 
most  places  other  preparation  is  needed. 
It  is  better  to  have  a  free  space  between 
the  outside  of  the  wall  and  the  sur- 
rounding earth,  and  this  space  should 
be  packed  with  well-beaten  clay,  as 
recommended  by  the  late  Col.  Waring. 
Better,  or  rather  in  addition,  the  outside 
of  the  wall  should  be  coated  with  pitch 
and  a  damp-proof  course,  consisting 
of  a  layer  of  pitch  and  slate,  should 
be  laid  in  the  wall  above  the  ground- 
line.  (Fig.  i.) 

In  the  next  place,  the  cellar  floor 
should  receive  our  attention.  This  may 
be  made  with  a  layer  of  well-beaten 
clay,  which  is  almost  impervious  to  air 
and  water,  or  a  layer  of  bricks  covered 
with  melted  pitch  and  then  cemented 


1 8    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

or  covered  with  concrete.  A  founda- 
tion with  its  cellar  and  the  area  about 
it  prepared  in  this  way  insures  the 
occupants  of  the  house  against  any 
trouble  from  the  soil,  and  is  well  worth 
the  extra  trouble  and  expense  incurred. 
Such  is  the  method  for  construct- 
ing the  new  foundation,  but  a  good 
many  houses  have  not  been  built  in 
this  manner,  and  are  sadly  defective 
with  their  wet  and  mouldy  cellars. 
Yet  much  can  be  done  that  will  improve 
such  a  building  and  make  it  more 
habitable.  In  the  first  place,  the  sur- 
rounding drainage  should  be  improved 
by  means  of  the  trench  described  above, 
and  this  alone  will  generally  give 
great  relief.  An  additional  security 
is  gained  by  digging  away  the  earth 
for  several  feet  from  the  outside  of 
the  wall,  and  then  leaving  this  open 


The  House.  19 

for  an  air-space,  or,  better,  coating  the 
wall  with  pitch  and  filling  in  next  to 
the  wall  with  puddled  clay.  The  cellar 
floor  should  be  treated,  just  as  in  a  new 
building,  to  a  layer  of  bricks,  pitch, 
and  concrete. 

In  the  construction  of  the  house 
it  is  desirable,  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view,  to  have  it  so  arranged  that 
the  greatest  number  or  all  of  the  rooms 
receive  sunlight  part  of  the  day,  as 
there  is  no  disinfectant  nor  deodorant 
equal  to  sunlight,  none  so  cheap  and 
none  to  make  up  its  absence.  This 
arrangement  can,  of  course,  only  be 
readily  made  when  one  has  plenty  of 
room,  but  there  are  a  good  many  houses 
— country  houses  in  a  sanitary  sense 
— which  are  built  on  suburban  lots, 
and  consequently  the  owner  cannot 
have  the  same  choice  of  position;  yet 


20   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

by  proper  planning  even  the  suburban 
lot  can  be  made  to  yield  very  good 
results  to  the  prospective  builder. 
Take  as  an  example  the  case  of  a  lot 
facing  the  street  or  road  on  the  north. 
The  usual  way  to  build  on  such  a  lot 
is,  and  always  has  been,  to  have  the 
front  of  the  house  face  the  road 
(Fig.  20).  This,  however,  gives  the  least 
possible  amount  of  sunshine  and  light 
to  the  principal  rooms  in  the  house, 
while  the  kitchen  and  back  rooms  get 
the  most  of  it.  As  it  is  impossible 
to  turn  the  lot  around  and  have  it 
face  the  right  direction,  we  must  do 
the  next  best  thing  and  turn  the 
house  around,  as  shown  in  the  second 
part  of  the  plan  (Fig.  26).  The  oc- 
cupants of  a  house  built  after  this 
method  cannot  see  the  dusty  road 
so  easily,  but  it  is  a  good  deal  better 


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Kitchen      Yard 


2      Kitchen 

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UNIVERSITY   ) 

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The  House.  23 

and  healthier  to  face  a  beautiful  back 
yard  than  any  road  or  street. 

The  material  of  which  a  house  is 
built  depends  generally  on  economic 
conditions.  Brick  and  stone  are  more 
desirable,  of  course,  than  wood,  less  ex- 
posed to  currents  of  air  and  changes  of 
temperature,  and  in  some  localities  do 
not  cost  much  more.  Just  at  present, 
in  most  of  the  Eastern  cities,  brick  is 
as  cheap  as,  if  not  cheaper  than,  wood, 
and  in  the  future  the  increasing  scarcity 
of  wood  will  necessitate  the  use  of 
these  other  materials  or  perhaps  the 
use  of  concrete,  which  is  gaining  much 
favor  as  a  building  material.  Brick 
and  stone  houses,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  likely  to  become  damp,  unless 
the  walls  are  double;  that  is,  the 
plaster  must  never  be  put  directly 
on  the  wall,  but  an  air-space  must 


24   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

be  left  by  "  furring' '  (as  the  build- 
ers say)  the  lath  away  from  the 
wall  by  strips  of  wood  which  leave 
a  small  interval  between  the  lath 
and  wall. 

The  heating  of  a  country  house 
differs  in  no  wise  from  that  of  a  city 
house;  hot  air,  hot  water,  and  steam 
being  the  three  principal  methods. 
In  addition  to  the  furnace,  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  open  fireplaces,  not  only 
for  heating  during  spring  and  fall, 
when  the  days  are  damp  and  chilly 
and  the  furnace  is  not  in  operation, 
but  for  the  cheerfulness  it  adds  to  a 
room  and,  in  addition,  for  its  value 
as  a  ventilator;  for  nothing  save  a 
rotary  fan  is  comparable  to  an 
open  fire  for  getting  the  foul  air 
out  of  a  house,  and  a  room  which 
contains  one  never  gets  the  peculiar 


FIG.  3. — THE  OLD  FRANKLIN. 


OFTHE          \k 
If    UNIVERSITY   } 

Of 


The  House.  27 

odor  so  characteristic  of    deficient  ven- 
tilation. 

In  some  places  where  wood  is  becom- 
ing almost  too  scarce  and  too  expensive 
to  use  in  an  ordinary  fireplace,  the 
old-fashioned  Franklin  stove,  or  "Penn- 
sylvania fireplace"  as  Franklin  him- 
self called  it,  is  a  worthy  substitute, 
on  account  of  the  great  saving  of  fuel. 
The  designer  says:  "The  use  of  these 
fireplaces  in  very  many  houses,  both 
of  this  and  the  neighboring  colonies, 
has  been  and  is  a  great  saving  of  wood 
to  the  inhabitant.  Some  say  it  saves 
five-sixths,  some  say  three-fourths,  and 
others  much  less.  I  suppose  two- 
thirds  or  one-half  is  saved.  My  room 
is  twice  as  warm  with  one-fourth  the 
wood  as  formerly  used."  If  it  was 
necessary  in  Franklin's  day  to  econo- 
mize fuel,  it  is  a  hundred  times  more 


28    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

necessary  now,  and  I  predict  as  the 
years  go  by  that  the  "old  Franklins " 
will  have  a  place  with  those  who  love 
a  wood  fire. 


CHAPTER  III. 

WATER-SUPPLY. 

THE  water-supply  of  a  country  house 
is  probably  its  most  important  point 
from  a  sanitary  view,  for  it  is  by  this 
means  that  typhoid  fever  is  generally 
transmitted,  even  in  the  milk-supply 
from  the  farm.  While  the  city  dweller 
is  almost  absolutely  dependent  on 
municipal  management  for  the  water 
which  he  uses,  in  the  country,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  whole  subject  rests  on 
the  care  or  carelessness  of  the  individ- 
ual householder.  On  this  individual 
care,  consequently,  rests  very  often  the 

responsibility    as    to    the    presence    or 

29 


30    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

absence  of  typhoid  fever  in  a  certain 
place,  and  the  undue  prevalence  of 
this  one  disease  in  the  rural  districts 
may  well  excite  caution  and  forethought 
in  the  prospective  rural  dweller. 

The  common  sources  of  water-supply 
for  country  houses  are  the  neighboring 
springs,  streams,  lakes,  and  wells,  all 
of  which  may  be  very  good  or  very 
bad,  depending  on  local  conditions, 
A  spring,  like  many  other  things  in 
this  world,  is  just  as  good  as  its  sur- 
roundings. If  it  happens  to  be  situated 
on  an  uninhabited  and  uncultivated 
upland  it  will  likely  yield  a  pure  water, 
and  if  near  enough  and  constant  enough 
may  furnish  the  most  available  supply, 
especially  if  it  is  at  such  an  elevation 
that  it  can  be  used  by  a  gravity 
system. 

Since    springs    are    only   overflows    of 


Water-Supply.  3 1 

the  ground-water,  their  condition  is 
dependent  on  the  geological  character 
of  the  strata  through  which  the  water 
passes.  In  a  region  in  which  the  strata 
have  been  upturned  and  broken  there 
may  be  a  seepage  of  pollution  from 
places  little  suspected,  unless  one  is 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  place. 
Out  of  a  series  of  fifty-two  wayside 
springs  examined  several  years  ago, 
only  sixteen  yielded  absolutely  unpol- 
luted water.  While  most  of  the  remain- 
ing thirty-six  yielded  a  water  which 
was  not  really  dangerously  polluted,  it 
illustrates  especially  how  great  is  the 
necessity  for  using  care. 

In  a  limestone  region,  on  account 
of  the  many  underground  seams  and 
tunnels  which  transmit  water  with 
great  facility,  without  the  filtering 
properties  of  the  soil,  pollution  and 


32    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

infection  may  travel  for  miles.  In  such 
a  region  there  are  always  many  beauti- 
ful springs,  but  they  need  watchful 
care  and  study  before  one  can  be  sure 
of  the  purity  of  the  water. 

Lakes,  rivers,  and  small  streams  are 
other  available  sources  of  water,  but 
local  conditions  must  be  thoroughly 
studied  before  resorting  to  these  for 
a  supply.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  larger  the  body  of  water  the  more 
likely  it  is  to  be  safe,  on  account  of 
the  great  dilution  of  any  possible  con- 
tamination. A  case  of  typhoid  fever 
on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna  or 
the  Delaware  does  not  amount  to  very 
much  as  a  source  of  danger,  but  the 
same  case  on  some  small  rivulet  may 
become  a  focus  for  spreading  disease. 

The  ' '  babbling  brook ' '  is  not  always 
the  thing  of  purity  it  seems  to  be,  for 


FIG.  4. — THE  UPLAND  BROOK — "PURE  AND  UNDEFILED-.' 


Water-Supply.  3  5 

it  has  been  the  means  of  starting  many 
an  epidemic.  It  is  only  when  such  a 
brook  comes  from  an  uninhabited  up- 
land that  it  is  pure  and  safe,  and  even 
then  the  consumers  of  the  water  should 
control  its  gathering-grounds  if  they 
expect  to  keep  the  water  pure.  It  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  price  of 
pure  water,  wherever  you  go,  is  ever- 
lasting and  unremitting  vigilance.  In 
Fig.  4  is  shown  a  photograph  of  one 
of  these  upland  brooks,  as  it  flows 
through  a  wild  ravine  of  ancient  pines 
and  hemlocks;  babbling  and  gurgling 
over  falls,  forming  cascades  and  pools, 
sparkling  in  the  sunlight,  it  seems 
like  the  elixir  of  life  to  the  thirsty 
wayfarer. 

The  headwaters  of  this  same  brook 
show  quite  a  different  picture,  for  it 
meanders  through  tilled  fields  and  over 


36    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

filthy  highways.  On  its  drainage  area 
there  are,  too,  five  dwellings,  and  in 
three  of  them  typhoid  fever  has  been 
a  real  and  recent  scourge. 

Unfortunately  this  is  the  tale  of 
many  an  upland  stream,  and  the 
only  safe  way,  before  one  gives  much 
thought  to  a  stream  as  an  available 
source  of  water-supply,  is  to  see  the 
other  end  to  its  " uttermost  parts." 

Another  source  of  water  for  the  rural 
dweller  is  the  well,  and  with  this,  too, 
special  care  is  necessary.  The  danger 
of  the  ordinary  shallow  well  is  known 
to  every  one,  but  there  seems  to  be  an 
idea  that  a  deep  well  always  yields 
good  water.  Still,  while  a  deep  well 
is  more  likely  to  yield  good  water  than 
a  shallow  one,  the  fact  that  a  well  is 
deep  is  no  proof  of  its  purity. 

I    would   like    to    add    an    additional 


Water-Supply .  37 

word  of  caution  about  the  ordinary 
shallow  well,  for  of  late  the  abandoned 
farm  with  its  ancient  well  has  begun 
to  figure  as  a  place  for  country  homes. 
The  country  people  love  these  "old 
wells."  If  you  question,  the  answer 
is:  "Why,  of  course,  nobody  ever  got 
sick  from  our  well."  I  once  came 
across  just  such  a  well.  Three  genera- 
tions back  this  old  well  had  furnished 
water  for  the  same  family,  and  no  one, 
in  truth,  ever  became  sick  from  it.  At 
last  the  old  folks  died,  and  the  second 
generation  started  on  their  way  with 
a  large  family  of  sons  and  daughters; 
still  no  one  became  sick.  The  third 
generation  became  men  and  women, 
and  still  resided  at  the  old  homestead. 
Then  at  last,  after  so  many  years, 
the  old  well  began  its  deadly  work. 
One  after  another  of  the  family  was 


38    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

stricken  with  typhoid  fever  until  four 
were  ill  at  one  time,  and  that  home 
will  never  be  the  same  it  once  was, 
for  there  are  two  vacant  places;  and 
this  old  well,  which  before  had  "never 
made  any  one  sick,"  proved,  on  ex- 
amination, to  be  grossly  polluted. 
Examination  of  these  farm-wells  has 
been  progressing  in  most  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  unfitness  of  this 
source  of  supply  is  a  striking  feature, 
whether  we  take  it  in  Canada  or 
in  Florida,  in  Pennsylvania  or  in 
California. 

In  considering  wells  one  should  re- 
member that  the  geological  character 
of  the  strata  has  much  to  do  with  the 
purity  of  the  water,  and  right  here  it 
is  necessary  to  recognize  the  fact  that 
every  deep  well  is  not  an  Artesian 
well.  Artesian  wells  are  those  which 


Water-Supply.  39 

pierce  geological  basins,  but  geological 
basins  do  not  exist  everywhere,  and 
while  a  well  might  be  a  thousand  feet 
deep  in  the  upturned  and  contorted 
strata  of  the  Apalachian  plateau,  it 
would  really  not  be  an  Artesian  well. 
Such  deep  wells  as  do  pierce  these 
regions  of  upturned  strata  are  especially 
prone  to  pollution,  on  account  of  the 
great  facility  with  which  drainage 
follows  lines  of  rock  cleavage.  In  a 
region  like  this  a  well  might  be  easily 
infected  from  some  distant  source,  and 
increasing  the  depth  of  the  well,  which 
is  frequently  done,  may  possibly  in- 
crease the  danger  by  opening  up  new 
channels  from  the  increased  area  of 
drainage.  Only  a  careful  study  of  a 
place  will  give  positive  results  as  to  the 
reliability  of  a  well-water.  Better  it  is 
to  study  the  locality  at  first  than  to 


40   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

sink  several  hundred  dollars  and  then 
find  the  water  polluted. 

The  purification  of  a  water-supply 
is  not  of  much  interest  to  the  dweller 
of  a  country  house,  for  he  is  nearly 
always  able  to  obtain  a  supply  already 
pure.  There  is  one  item  of  this  subject 
worth  some  attention,  however,  and 
that  is  the  growth  of  algae,  which  is 
likely  to  occur  in  the  purest  water.  This 
green  scum,  while  probably  not  detri- 
mental to  health,  gives  the  water 
a  peculiar,  fishy  flavor  which  makes 
it  very  unpleasant  for  drinking.  For- 
tunately we  have  a  cheap  and  efficient 
remedy  for  the  treatment  of  this  con- 
dition, which  consists  in  making  a 
dilute  solution  of  copper  sulphate  in 
the  water  affected.  The  usual  method 
of  doing  this  is  to  immerse  in  a  spring, 
pond,  or  reservoir  a  coarse  sack  con- 


Water-Supply.  41 

taining  an  amount  of  copper  sulphate 
sufficient  to  make  a  strength  of  about 
1/4,000,000 — something  like  one  grain 
to  sixty  gallons.  I  know  of  a  man 
who  had  piped  water  to  his  place  from 
a  mountain  spring,  and  shortly  after- 
wards found  that  algae  were  growing 
plentifully  in  the  water  and  stopping 
up  the  pipe.  He  treated  the  spring  with 
copper  as  above  described,  and  obtained 
relief  in  twenty-four  hours. 

So  much  for  the  question  of  pure 
water — a  question  needing  no  considera- 
tion, were  it  not  for  the  almost  uni- 
versal defilement  of  the  soil  about 
our  springs  and  watercourses,  brought 
about  solely  by  human  carelessness  and 
neglect.  That  such  is  the  case  is  very 
lamentable,  and  that  such  could  be 
easily  remedied  is  apparent  to  every 
one.  John  Ruskin  has  so  well  depicted 


42   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

this  state  of  affairs  in  England — a 
condition  the  like  of  which  we  our- 
selves are  fast  approaching — that  it 
seems  worth  while  to  quote  him  with- 
out reserve.  '  'Twenty  years  ago/' 
says  the  distinguished  author,  "  there 
was  no  lovelier  piece  of  lowland  scenery 
in  South  England,  nor  any  more  pathetic 
in  the  world,  by  its  expression  of  sweet 
human  character  and  life,  than  that 
immediately  bordering  on  the  sources 
of  the  Wandel,  and  including  the  low 
moors  of  Addington  and  the  villages 
of  Beddington  and  Carshalton,  with 
all  their  pools  and  streams.  No  clearer 
or  diviner  waters  ever  sang  with  con- 
stant lips  of  the  hand  which  'giveth 
rain  from  heaven' ;  no  pastures  ever 
lightened  in  springtime  with  more 
passionate  blossoming;  no  sweeter 
home  ever  hallowed  the  heart  of  the 


Water-Supply.  43 

passer-by  with  their  pride*  of  peaceful 
gladness,  fairhidden,  yet  full-confessed. 
The  place  remains  nearly  unchanged 
in  its  larger  features;  but  with 
deliberate  mind  I  say,  that  I  have 
never  seen  anything  so  ghastly  in  its 
inner  tragic  meaning  as  the  slow  steal- 
ing of  aspects,  of  reckless,  indolent, 
animal  neglect,  over  the  delicate  sweet- 
ness of  that  English  scene;  nor  is 
any  blasphemy  or  impiety,  any  frantic 
saying  or  godless  thought,  more  appalling 
to  me,  using  the  best  power  of  judgment 
I  have  to  discern  its  sense  and  scope, 
than  the  insolent  defiling  of  those 
springs  by  the  human  herds  that  drink 
of  them.  Just  where  the  welling  of 
stainless  water,  trembling  and  pure, 
like  a  body  of  light,  enters  the  pool 
of  Carshalton,  cutting  itself  a  radiant 
channel  down  to  the  gravel,  through 


44   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

warp  of  feathery  weeds,  all  waving, 
which  it  traverses  with  its  deep  threads 
of  clearness,  like  the  chalcedony  in 
moss-agate,  starred  here  and  there 
with  white  grenouillette;  just  in  the 
very  rush  and  murmur  of  the  first 
spreading  currents,  the  human  wretches 
of  the  place  cast  their  street  and  house 
foulness;  heaps  of  dust  and  slime,  and 
broken  shreds  of  old  metal,  and  rags 
of  putrid  clothes;  which,  having  neither 
energy  to  cart  away  nor  decency  enough 
to  dig  into  the  ground,  they  thus  shed 
into  the  stream,  to  diffuse  what  venom 
of  it  will  float  and  melt,  far  away,  in 
all  places  where  God  meant  those  waters 
to  bring  joy  and  health.  And,  in 
a  little  pool,  behind  some  houses  farther 
in  the  village,  where  another  spring 
rises,  the  shattered  stones  of  the  well, 
and  of  the  little  fretted  channel  which 


Water-Supply.  45 

was  long  ago  built  and  traced  for  it  by 
gentler  hands,  lie  scattered,  each  from 
each,  under  a  ragged  bank  of  mortar, 
and  scoria,  and  bricklayer's  refuse,  on 
one  side,  which  the  clean  water  never- 
theless chastises  to  purity;  but  it 
cannot  conquer  the  dead  earth  beyond; 
and  there,  circled  and  coiled  under 
festering  scum,  the  stagnant  edge  of 
the  pool  effaces  itself  into  a  slope  of 
black  slime,  the  accumulation  of  in- 
dolent years.  Half  a  dozen  men,  with 
one  day's  work,  could  cleanse  those 
pools  and  trim  the  flowers  about  their 
banks,  and  make  every  breath  of  sum: 
mer  air  above  them  rich  with  cool 
balm,  and  every  glittering  wave  me- 
dicinal, as  if  it  ran,  troubled  only  of 
angels,  from  the  porch  of  Bethesda. 
But  that  day's  work  is  never  given, 
nor,  I  suppose,  will  be;  nor  will  any 


46    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

joy  be  possible  to  heart  of  man,  for- 
evermore,  about  those  wells  of  English 
waters.' ' 

How  truthfully  this  description,  with 
a  slight  change  of  names,  would  suit 
our  own  springs  and  pools! 


CHAPTER  IV. 

WASTE   DISPOSAL. 

IN  taking  up  the  study  of  waste 
disposal  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  "out  of  sight,  out  of  mind/'  is  not 
hygiene.  The  use  of  his  senses  long 
ago  impelled  man  to  put  away  his 
waste  products,  and  this  was  the  first 
step  in  the  evolution  of  waste  disposal. 
The  use  of  reason — the  second  step — 
born  by  the  labor  of  countless  centuries 
of  costly  mistakes  has  taught  us  that 
these  wastes  must,  in  addition  to  being 
put  away,  be  turned  into  harmless 
compounds  before  we  can  call  the 
work  complete.  Though  this  seems 

47 


48   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

very  simple  in  theory,  in  practice, 
on  account  of  the  complicated  conditions 
of  modern  civilization,  we  often  fall 
far  short  of  the  ideal. 

In  most  country  houses  water  under 
pressure  is  available,  and  when  this  is 
so  water-carriage  of  excreta  is  certainly 
desirable,  necessitating  thereby  the 
use  of  water-closets  and  plumbing,  just 
as  in  the  city.  Then  there  follows, 
of  course,  the  use  of  the  sewer  and 
the  great  question  of  sewage  disposal. 
If  one  is  situated  near  the  sea  or  on 
a  tidal  river,  the  easiest  method  is 
to  run  the  sewage  directly  into  this. 
It  is  not  admissible,  however,  to  run 
raw  sewage  into  a  fresh-water  stream 
or  lake.  This  is,  nevertheless,  fre- 
quently done,  and  it  has  a  bad  moral 
effect  on  the  rural  citizen,  who  is  by 
no  means  overburdened  with  sanitary 


Waste  Disposal.  49 

devices.  Of  course,  some  of  our  great 
fresh-water  streams  seem  to  have  been 
given  over  to  sewage  by  the  cities  along 
their  banks,  and  the  country  resident 
living  on  such  a  stream  could  hardly 
be  blamed  for  using  it  for  his  own 
sewage  disposal. 

When  it  comes  to  the  smaller  streams 
and  lakes  such  a  plan  is  wholly  inad- 
visable, and  some  form  of  disposal 
plant  becomes  necessary.*  Intermit- 
tent sand  filtration  is  a  method  which 
disposes  of  sewage  satisfactorily  and 
gives  an  effluent  which  can  be  turned 
safely  into  any  stream  however  small. 
A  plant  of  this  sort,  though  used  ex- 
tensively in  various  small  towns,  is 
only  advisable  for  certain  houses  where 


*  I  have  purposely  omitted  mention  of  the  ordinary 
cesspool — a  relic  of  medieval  shiftlessness  and  careless- 
ness for  which  no  excuse  can  be  offered. 


50  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

the  character  of  the  soil  or  the  topog- 
raphy makes  it  difficult  to  use  one 
or  the  other  method  of  irrigation- 
surface  or  subsoil — either  of  which  is 
an  ideal  plan  of  disposal  for  nearly  all 
isolated  houses. 

In  surface  irrigation  the  sewage 
is  simply  distributed  over  cultivated 
land,  where  it  is  rapidly  absorbed  and 
the  filth  disposed  of  by  the  numerous 
bacteria  of  the  soil.  By  this  method 
(Fig.  5)  the  sewage  from  the  house  is 
first  sent  to  a  settling-tank,  or  rather 
an  intercepting-chamber,  where  the 
solid  material  is  decomposed  and  ma- 
cerated into  very  small  particles;  from 
this  the  liquid  passes  into  a  flush-tank, 
from  which  it  is  discharged  by  an 
automatic  siphon  into  surface  gutters, 
and  from  these  allowed  to  spread  over 
the  ground  or  run  into  furrows  between 


Waste  Disposal.  53 

growing  vegetables  or  grain.  The 
intermittent  flow  of  sewage,  which  is 
brought  about  by  the  use  of  the  siphon, 
is  a  desirable  feature  for  the  efficient 
working  of  this  plan,  especially  in 
winter. 

Surface  disposal  of  sewage  in  this  man- 
ner is  perfectly  satisfactory  and  creates 
no  nuisance.  In  some  instances,  how- 
ever, due  to  lack  of  suitable  location, 
subsurface  irrigation  might  be  more  de- 
sirable. The  house  arrangements  in  this 
case  are  the  same  as  for  a  surface  plant 
except  that  the  foul  liquid,  after  leaving 
the  flush-tank,  flows  into  open-jointed 
drain-tiles  laid  under  the  ground  near 
the  surface — within  eight  or  ten  inches 
at  least.  This  last  is  important,  for 
the  reason  that  the  filth-destroying 
bacteria  are  vastly  more  numerous 
near  the  surface.  In  putting  up  a 


54    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

plant  like  this  the  flush-tank  should 
have  a  capacity  of  something  like  fifty 
(50)  gallons  for  each  person,  and  in 
good  absorptive  soil  about  one  hundred 
(100)  feet  of  two-inch  tile  for  each 
fifty  (50)  gallons  capacity  of  tank. 

There  is  yet  another  method  simpler 
and  less  costly  than  those  described, 
provided  land  is  abundant  and  the 
house  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
other  dwellings.  In  this  method  the 
settling-  and  flush-tanks  are  eliminated 
and  the  sewage  is  turned  directly  from 
the  house  to  the  land,  flowing  from 
the  sewer  into  shallow  trenches,  be- 
tween which  corn,  vegetables,  or  trees 
may  be  planted.  In  order  not  to 
overtask  the  land  at  any  one  place 
the  trenches  should  permit  of  being 
blocked  at  various  points  so  as  to 
divert  the  sewage  into  different  trenches 


Waste  Disposal.  57 

A  wintry  climate  does  not  interfere 
with  the  working  of  these  various 
sewage  farms,  for  the  sewage,  more 
or  less  warm,  readily  cuts  its  way 
through  snow  and  ice  and  gradually 
filters  through  the  soil  beneath. 

With  the  sewage  disposed  of,  there 
yet  remain  certain  other  waste  products 
to  be  gotten  rid  of — garbage  from  the 
kitchen,  rubbish  of  various  kinds,  and 
ashes.  The  disposal  of  these  products 
becomes  easy  if  the  various  kinds  are 
collected  and  kept  separate.  A  good 
way  is  to  have  a  series  of  receptacles 
for  the  different  materials,  as  I  have 
shown  in  the  photograph  (Fig.  6),  and 
a  certain  place  for  each  one.  The 
paper,  rags,  rubbish,  etc.,  for  which 
flour-sacks,  supported  by  iron  racks, 
are  used,  might  be  still  further  sub- 
divided, according  to  circumstances. 


58    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

Another,  perhaps  better  way  of  collect- 
ing, is  to  have  the  receptacles  arranged 
in  one  place,  instead  of  being  scattered 
here  and  there  about  the  premises;  for 
example,  in  a  large  box  placed  at  the 
back  of  the  house  near  the  kitchen 
door,  so  as  to  be  readily  accessible.  Such 
a  box  is  shown  in  Fig.  7;  and  while 
this  one  was  only  made  for  four  sepa- 
rate compartments,  it  can  be  easily 
constructed  with  as  many  as  may  be 
desired. 

Now  as  to  the  ultimate  disposal  of 
household  waste.  The  garbage  is  best 
got  rid  of  by  earth  burial  —  simply 
put  into  a  shallow  furrow  in  a  field 
and  covered  with  a  little  earth.  If 
the  vegetable-bed  is  near  the  kitchen, 
a  good  way  is  to  have  a  hole  in  the 
bed  and  practice  daily  disposal  of  the 
garbage.  Every  evening  the  garbage 


FIG.  7. — Box  FOR  WASTE-RECEPTACLES. 


FIG.  8. — GARDEN-BED    SHOWING    COVER    FOR    GARBAGE-HOLE, 
DRAINS,  ETC. 


Waste  Disposal.  63 

should  be  covered  with  earth;  and,  in 
addition,  a  tight  board  lid  should  cover 
the  hole  during  the  summer  months 
(Fig.  8),  else  the  place  may  become 
a  breeding-place  for  flies  and  degenerate 
into  a  nuisance.  Screening  the  hole, 
which  I  have  tried,  will  not  be  sufficient, 
for  the  little  fruit-flies,  which  are  very 
likely  to  choose  such  a  breeding-place, 
will  creep  through  a  screen  of  the 
smallest  mesh. 

The  non-combustible  part  of  the 
rubbish,  such  as  bottles,  tin  cans, 
scraps  of  metal,  etc.,  can  usually  be  sold 
to  the  junk-dealer;  and  the  combus- 
tible part,  if  not  salable,  should,  of 
course,  be  destroyed  by  fire.  Ashes 
can  be  used  in  almost  any  place  for 
filling,  making  paths,  or  for  a  foundation 
under  pavements,  than  which  there  is 
nothing  better,  the  engineers  say. 


64   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

We  have  now  to  consider  that  class 
of  country  houses — generally  of  the 
smaller  kind — where  a  sewerage  system 
is  not  available,  and  for  such  we  have 
to  adopt  an  entirely  different  plan  for 
the  disposal  of  excreta,  namely,  that 
known  as  the  "dry"  method.  This  calls 
for  the  use  of  a  galvanized-iron  pail 
and  a  seat  exactly  like  that  of  an  ordi- 
nary water-closet  (Fig.  9).  At  the  side 
of  the  seat  is  a  box  for  holding  the 
absorbent,  which  consists  of  sifted  coal- 
ashes  or  dry  earth.  After  use  a  little 
of  the  absorbent  is  scattered  in  the 
pail,  and  when  the  pail  is  filled  it  is 
emptied  on  cultivated  land — a  field  or 
a  vegetable-bed.  If  the  pail  is  emptied 
near  the  house,  a  little  earth  should 
be  raked  over  the  pile,  and  in  a  short 
time — a  week  or  two  in  summer,  with 
corresponding  increase  in  cold  weather 


UNIVERSITY! 


Waste  Disposal.  69 

— all  evidence  of  filth  will  have  disap- 
peared. Thus  simple  is  the  "dry" 
closet,  an  arrangement  which,  if  taken 
proper  care  of,  is  perfectly  cleanly, 
inodorous,  and  sanitary. 

When  the  dry  method  is  used  we 
will  have  certain  waste  waters  from 
the  bath  and  kitchen  sink  to  dispose 
of,  and  this  is  best  done  by  some  form 
of  surface-drain  suspended  over  the 
vegetable-bed.  The  one  shown  in  the 
photograph  (Fig.  10)  is  made  of  a 
six-inch  galvanized  roof-gutter  pierced 
every  twelve  inches  by  one-fourth- 
inch  holes.  This  allows  the  filthy  water 
to  be  distributed  evenly  over  the  ground 
without  forming  puddles  and  mud- 
holes.  The  disposal  of  garbage,  ashes, 
and  rubbish  is  conducted  in  the  same 
way  as  described  previously. 

A    vegetable-bed    may    not    seem    a 


70   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

very  large  piece  of  ground  to  receive 
the  waste  from  an  entire  family,  but 
the  waste-destroying  properties  of  tilled 
soil  is  very  great  indeed.  The  bed 
shown  in  Figs.  8  and  10,  only  sixteen 
by  twenty  feet  in  size,  has  received 
all  the  waste  —  dry-closet  contents, 
kitchen  offal,  and  slop- waters  —  from  a 
family  of  four  for  the  last  ten  years, 
and  has  destroyed  all  this  filth  without 
offense  to  sight  or  smell,  and  in  addition 
has  made  the  bed  one  of  exceeding 
fertility. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   SURROUNDINGS. 

PROPER  attention  to  the  grounds 
around  a  country  house  is  desirable 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  attractiveness, 
but  on  account  of  the  sanitary  benefit 
derived.  Uncut  grass,  dense  foliage^ 
decaying  weeds  and  wood  will  spoil  the 
appearance  and  lower  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  almost  any  place.  Trees,  of 
course,  are  desirable  for  shade  about  a 
house,  but  should  be  trimmed  high.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  have  a  lawn  immediately 
around  the  house,  for  a  well-kept  lawn 
is  the  most  sanitary  earth  covering 

known,   preventing   excess   of   moisture 

71 


72   Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

by  evaporation  and  absorption,  and 
promoting  purity  of  the  soil  by  the 
action  of  the  growing  grass. 

Though  the  majority  of  country 
dwellings  have  the  front  and  exposed 
part  of  the  grounds  in  very  fair  condi- 
tion, there  is  very  often  a  back  yard 
or  kitchen-garden  which  offers  striking 
contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  premises 
and  calls  for  more  care  and  thought 
than  is  usually  bestowed  upon  it.  With 
the  waste  collected  and  disposed  of  as 
suggested  in  a  former  chapter,  there 
is  no  reason  why  a  back  yard  should 
not  be  in  as  good  condition  as  any 
other  part  of  the  grounds.  The  vege- 
table-bed, though  not  unsightly  if  well 
cared  for,  can  be  surrounded,  if  one 
so  desires,  by  a  hedge  of  bushes  or 
a  trellis  covered  with  vines.  Such  a 
bed  should  always  be  thoroughly  cul- 


The  Surroundings.  73 

tivated,  kept  free  of  all  decaying 
vegetables  and  weeds,  and  when  the 
proper  time  arrives  should  be  cleaned 
and  the  rubbish  destroyed  by  fire. 

It  is  perhaps  a  good  thing,  in  many 
places,  to  reserve  a  part  of  the  stable- 
yard  or  kitchen-garden  for  rubbish 
which  cannot  immediately  be  disposed 
of,  such  as  tree  trimmings  and  the  like; 
although  the  ideal  method  does  not 
presuppose  such  a  condition,  but  calls 
for  immediate  disposal.  Unfortunately 
most  of  our  terrestrial  methods  only 
approach  the  ideal,  and  we  do  the  best 
we  can  under  existing  conditions.  Even 
if  it  does  become  necessary  to  retain 
some  of  the  waste  on  the  premises 
for  a  time,  this  can  be  kept  in  such 
a  condition  as  not  to  become  a  nuisance 
nor  offensive;  but  to  have  such  waste 
scattered  everywhere,  and  perhaps 


74  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House, 

have  in  addition  an  open  pail  or  two 
containing  water  and  breeding  thou- 
sands of  mosquitoes,  as  I  have  shown 
in  the  photograph  (Fig.  n),  is  surely 
inadmissible. 

The  outbuildings  require  a  word, 
especially  the  stable,  which,  on  account 
of  being  a  great  fly-breeding  place, 
should  be  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
house.  That  flies  do  sometimes  transmit 
disease — notably  typhoid  fever — there 
is  no  longer  a  doubt,  and  their  elimina- 
tion, or  rather  diminution,  is  eminently 
desirable.  Absence  of  the  stable  would 
be  one  of  the  most  effective  ways,  but 
stables  are  necessary,  and  the  best  we 
can  do  is  to  diminish  as  much  as 
possible  their  fly-producing  properties. 
There  are  practically  two  ways  of  doing 
this.  The  first  consists  in  using  a  closet 


How  THE  BACK  YARD  OUGHT  TO  LOOK. 


FIG.  ii. — How  THE  BACK  YARD  FREQUENTLY  DOES  LOOK. 


The  Surroundings.  77 

or  pit  which  is  thoroughly  screened,  as 
a  receptacle  for  the  manure.  Another 
method  is  to  cart  the  manure  every 
day  to  the  field  for  fertilizing. 

This  carting  of  stable  manure  im- 
mediately on  to  the  field — a  procedure 
which  has  been  followed  by  a  friend  of 
mine  for  the  last  sixteen  years — is,  by 
the  way,  desirable  not  only  from  hy- 
gienic motives,  but  from  an  economic 
view;  for  the  nitrogen  of  the  manure, 
instead  of  being  wasted  in  the  stable- 
yard,  gets  into  the  soil  just  where  it  is 
needed.  Probably  a  combination  of 
the  two  methods  would  be  more  satis- 
factory, such  as  keeping  the  manure, 
for  example,  in  a  screened  pit  or  closet, 
or  a  covered  wagon,  for  several  days 
and  then  removing  to  the  field  when 
convenient. 

After     prompt    and    careful    manure 


78    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

disposal  from  the  stable  the  next 
sanitary  requisites  are  simply  cleanli- 
ness, fresh  air,  and  sunshine;  in  fact 
they  are  just  as  desirable  in  the 
stable  as  in  the  house.  Hard- wood 
stalls,  iron  feed-racks,  and  concrete 
floors  are  all  very  well,  but  ordi- 
nary pine  stalls  which  can  be  white- 
washed several  times  a  year,  with  a 
hard-clay  floor,  answer  probably  almost 
as  well.  Paramount  considerations,  how- 
ever, are  general  cleanliness  and  fresh 
air.  I  know  of  a  so-called  model 
stable,  which  is  indeed  a  model  in 
every  respect  except  that  there  is 
only  a  little  over  400  cubic  feet  of 
air-space  allowed  each  horse,  while 
it  is  conceded  by  sanitarians  that  a 
healthy  horse  requires  just  about  1500 
cubic  feet  of  air-space — almost  four 
times  more  than  this  model  stable 


The  Surroundings.  79 

grants.  Even  more  necessary  is  it  for 
cows  to  have  sufficient  air-space  on 
account  of  their  tendency  to  tubercu- 
losis and  the  danger  of  consequent  milk 
and  meat  infection.  Yet  I  have  before 
me  the  report  of  a  recently  completed 
dairy-barn,  costing  $8000,  which  al- 
lows only  780  cubic  feet  of  air-space 
for  each  cow.  Is  it  any  wonder  that 
there  is  so  much  bovine  tuberculosis? 

Drainage  of  the  grounds  about  a 
country  house  is  another  eminently 
desirable  thing.  Marsh  land  especially 
should  be  drained  or  excavated  into 
ponds,  and  streams  should  have  firm 
banks  devoid  of  weeds  and  high  grass; 
all  this  on  account  of  mosquitoes. 
Unless  some  such  precautions  are  taken 
mosquitoes  are  likely  to  be  a  great 
pest  in  some  country  places.  If  they 


80    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

were  only  a  pest,  we  might  be  silent 
on  the  subject,  but  it  is  known  without 
question  that  one  family  of  mosquitoes 
—  the  Anopheles  —  transmits  malaria, 
and  this  happens  to  be  just  the  kind 
that  live  and  breed  in  the  country. 
Drainage,  the  introduction  of  small 
fish  into  ponds  and  pools,  and  treat- 
ment with  kerosene  are  the  methods 
used  at  present  in  mosquito  warfare. 
In  Fig.  12  is  shown  the  photograph 
of  a  small  stream  which  flows  through 
a  country  place,  in  the  little  rock- 
pools  of  which,  at  certain  times,  I 
have  found  countless  numbers  of  the 
larvae  of  Anopheles.  In  such  a  stream 
the  fight  against  mosquitoes  requires 
care  and  judgment.  Every  rain  floods 
this  brook,  and  of  course  with  each 
flood  the  larvae  in  these  pools  are 
drowned  and  carried  away;  however, 


pIG    I2t A  WASTE-LAND  BPOOK,  SHOWING  MOSQUITO-BREED- 
ING POOLS. 


The  Surroundings.  83 

if  no  flood  occurs  for  eight  or  ten  days, 
considering  that  no  fish  live  in  the 
pools,  it  is  likely  that  the  existing 
larvae  would  transform  into  full-fledged 
mosquitoes.  So  the  only  remedy  dur- 
ing a  drouth  is  to  travel  up  and  down 
this  brook  and  spray  kerosene  on  each 
pool — a  labor  which  is  by  no  means 
as  great  as  it  may  seem. 

In  the  South  another  family  of  mos- 
quitoes transmits  yellow  fever,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  methods  used  in  Cuba 
during  American  occupation  is  well 
known  to  every  one.  Inasmuch  as 
mosquitoes  of  all  kinds  cling  more  or 
less  closely  to  the  place  of  their  birth, 
individual  action  counts  for  much  in 
isolated  country  houses. 


CHAPTER  VI, 

THE    SUMMER  CAMP. 

CAMP  life  is  beginning  to  be  so  great 
a  factor  in  American  life  that  it  deserves 
a  little  attention  from  sanitarians, 
inasmuch  as  one  frequently  hears  of 
sickness  being  attributed  to  this  source. 

Just  as  I  am  writing  this  I  notice 
a  report  of  an  increased  amount  of 
typhoid  fever  in  all  sections  of  New 
York  State,  and  the  health  authorities 
investigating  it  have  found  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  sufferers  are  those 
who  have  passed  their  summer  holiday 
in  the  country.  With  reports  like  this 

frequently    appearing   there   can   be   no 

84 


The  Summer  Camp.  85 

question  but  that  camp  life,  in  many 
cases,  has  been  and  is  a  source  of  danger 
if  one  is  careless  in  regard  to  the  usual 
sanitary  rules. 

We  are  apt  to  think  that  everything 
in  the  woods  is  so  fresh  from  the  hand 
of  the  Maker  that  sanitary  care  is 
unnecessary;  every  spring  and  every 
brook  seems  to  be  pure  and  undefiled. 
If  we  could  only  drop  into  the  "forest 
primeval/ '  such  would  indeed  be  the 
case;  but  the  fact  is  that  wherever 
you  go  some  one  else  has  been  there 
before. 

I  recall  an  incident  in  point  which 
occurred  to  a  friend  of  mine  who  was 
tramping  through  the  wilds  of  Canada 
north  of  Lake  Ontario.  One  day  coming 
across  a  grave  he  remarked  to  the 
guide  that  he  didn't  suppose  people 
died  here.  "Yes,  they  do,  and  of 


86    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria/'  was  the 
answer. 

Let  us  investigate  first  the  permanent 
camp  which  is  occupied  summer  after 
summer.  This,  like  any  other  habita- 
tion, evidently  needs  some  care  to 
keep  clean.  It  will  not  be  sufficient 
to  throw  waste  materials  just  outside 
the  door,  for  this  is  not  only  unsightly 
but  tends  gradually  to  cause  pollution 
of  the  soil,  air,  and  water,  the  very 
things  one  expects  to  avoid  in  going 
to  the  country.  Tin  cans,  waste  paper, 
,  and  offal  littering  the  virgin  soil  around 
a  beautiful  camp  are  even  more  jarring 
to  one's  sensibilities  than  when  scat- 
tered about  the  village  alley.  There 
is,  fortunately,  no  complicated  system 
of  waste  disposal  in  the  camp  as  in 
the  city.  All  combustible  rubbish 
should  be  burned  and  the  non-com- 


The  Summer  Camp.  87 

bustible — of  which  there  will  not  likely 
be  much  —  should  be  buried.  All 
putrescible  waste — that  is,  garbage — 
should  be  put  into  a  regular  garbage- 
hole  and  covered  every  evening,  at 
least,  with  earth.  This  hole  can  be  in 
some  unfrequented  place,  or  behind 
some  cluster  of  bushes  or  trees,  so  as 
not  to  detract  from  the  beauty  of 
the  place  nor  offend  one's  senses. 

The  only  other  waste  to  be  consid- 
ered, and  by  far  the  most  important,  is 
human  excrement;  for  man's  waste  prod- 
ucts become  poisons  when  again  taken 
into  the  system.  The  best  way,  and 
the  only  proper  way,  to  dispose  of  this 
is  by  a  dry  closet  somewhat  after  the 
form  mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter: 
it  need  not,  however,  be  elaborate 
in  order  to  be  effective.  The  one 
shown  in  the  photograph  (Fig.  13)  is 


88    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

made  of  rough  slabs  and  in  the  crudest 
manner,  yet  it  is  perfect  in  its  sanitary 
appointments,  vastly  better  than  many 
a  city  water-closet.  I  have  frequently 
had  friends  inspect  this,  and  they 
invariably  remarked  that  the  distin- 
guishing odor  was  that  of  the  cedar 
shingles  used  in  constructing  'it.  The 
earth  used  in  the  pail  is  taken  directly 
from  the  field  a  few  yards  away,  and 
the  contents  of  the  pail  are  emptied 
on  the  same  field  only  a  short  distance 
from  the  camp,  yet  after  this  is  covered 
with  a  little  earth  one  can  pass  the 
spot  without  knowing  it. 

In  regard  to  the  water-supply  of  a 
camp  it  is  only  necessary  to  emphasize 
what  was  said  in  Chapter  II.  It  is 
not  safe  to  drink  from  every  brook 
or  spring  one  comes  to.  A  good  rule 
is  always  to  see  the  other  end  first,  or 


FIG.  13. — THE    SANITARY  ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  A    PERMANENT 

CAMP. 


The  Summer  Camp.  91 

at  least  have  knowledge  of  its  entire 
drainage-basin,  whether  spring  or  brook. 
The  case  referred  to  on  page  27  is  typ- 
ical of  the  existing  condition  of  many 
cf  our  small  watercourses.  Everything 
else  being  equal,  springs  and  brooks 
having  no  human  dwellings  on  their 
drainage  areas  are  practically  safe. 
When  I  say  dwellings,  I  mean  only 
temporary  camps,  especially  ' '  labor 
camps/'  for  they  are  at  times  even 
worse  than  permanent  dwellings  as  a 
focus  of  infection. 

Sometimes  the  natural  water-supply 
of  the  camp  is  so  far  away  that  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  have  some  supply 
nearer.  In  a  certain  camp  where  it 
was  not  desirable  to  go  to  the  expense 
of  using  a  ram,  a  good  supply  for  wash- 
ing and  cooking  was  obtained  by 
utilizing  the  rain-water  collected  from 


92    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

the  roof  in  a  barrel  (Fig.  14).  While 
this  rain-water  is  not  as  palatable 
as  spring-water  for  drinking,  it  is 
splendid,  on  account  of  its  softness,  for 
cooking  and  washing,  and  is  thoroughly 
sanitary.  Of  course  the  barrel  must 
be  screened  so  as  to  furnish  no  breeding- 
place  for  mosquitoes. 

The  temporary  camp  of  a  week  or 
so,  it  is  needless  to  state,  does  not 
require  the  same  sanitary  precautions 
as  a  permanent  camp;  yet  a  hole  for 
garbage  is  a  very  desirable  thing,  and 
may  save  trouble  for  those  who  come 
after.  A  dry  closet,  such  as  described 
for  a  permanent  camp,  is  not  to  be 
thought  of,  but  a  very  good  substitute 
is  a  sink  such  as  is  used  by  armies 
in  the  field:  simply  a  short  trench 
in  the  ground  and  a  support,  as  shown 
in  the  photograph  (Fig.  15).  Such 


FIG.  14. — AN  INEXPENSIVE  AND  SANITARY  METHOD  FOR  COL- 
LECTING RAIN-WATER. 


pIG    jcj. — THE  SANITARY  ARRANGEMENTS  FOR    A    TEMPORARY 

CAMP. 


The  Summer  Camp.  97 

an  arrangement,  hidden  by  a  clump 
of  bushes,  covered  frequently  with 
earth,  and  not  placed  near  a  water- 
course, is  perfectly  satisfactory  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view.  If  even 
this  is  too  much  trouble,  there  yet 
remains  the  "method  of  Moses/'  which 
has  stood  the  test  of  some  three  thou- 
sand years,  and  can  still  be  recom- 
mended: "And  thou  shalt  have  a  pad- 
dle upon  thy  weapon;  and  it  shall  be, 
when  thou  wilt  ease  thyself  abroad, 
thou  shalt  dig  therewith,  and  shalt 
turn  back  and  cover  that  which  cometh 
from  thee"  (Deut.  xxiii.  13). 

For  the  water-supply  of  a  temporary 
camp  all  the  rules  hold  good  that  were 
laid  down  for  other  water-supplies. 
There  is  one  additional  point,  how- 
ever, that  is  worth  mentioning.  If 
the  circumstance  should  arise  when  one 


98    Sanitation  of  a  Country  House. 

must  use  the  water  from  some  sus- 
picious stream,  it  is  well  to  practice 
the  plan  used  by  the  natives  of  India, 
who  dig  little  holes  in  the  sand  of  the 
shore  until  they  get  below  the  water 
level.  These  holes  soon  fill  with  clear 
water,  which,  having  filtered  through 
the  surrounding  sand,  is  vastly  safer 
than  the  raw  water  of  the  stream. 


INDEX. 


Algse 4° 

copper  treatment  of 4° 

Artesian  wells 38 

Ashes,  disposal  of 57>  63 

"Babbling  brook,"  the 32 

Camp,  permanent 86 

waste  disposal  in 86 

dry  closet  for 87 

water-supply  of 88 

rain-water  for 91 

Camp,  temporary 92 

sanitary  precautions  for 92 

water-supply  of 97 

Canada,  experience  in 85 

Cellar  floor 17 

Cellars,  wet,  to  improve 18 

99 


i  oo  Index. 


PAGE 


Cesspool,  the 49 

Clay  soil 10 

Country  house,  heating  of 24 

site  for 3,  4,  13 

sunlight  in 20 

surroundings  of 71 

water-supply  of 29 

Dairy  barn 79 

Delaware  River 32 

Diphtheria 86 

Drain,  surface 69 

of  roof -gutter. 69 

Dry  closet,  construction  of 64,  87 

disposal  of  contents  of 64,  88 

Excreta,  disposal  of 48 

dry  method  for 64 

Farm  wells 37 

Flies 63,74 

Foundation,  Col.  Waring  on 17 

damp-proof  course  for 17 

drains  for 13 

external  packing  for 17 

making  a 14,  17 

pitch  used  in 17 

Franklin  stove 27 


Index.  101 

PAGE 

Garbage,  disposal  of 57 

Geological  basins 39 

Geological  beds 1 1 

Gravel  beds 1 1 

Ground-air 8 

composition  of 8 

movement  of 9 

Ground-moisture 6,  7 

origin  of 7 

lowering  of 7 

and  rheumatism 7 

and  phthisis 7 

Ground-water 5 

level  of 6 

Heating 24 

by  Franklin  stove 27 

House,  construction  of 19 

on  suburban  lot 20 

material  for 23 

Intermittent  nitration 49 

Irrigation  plant,  plan  of 50,  53 

Irrigation,  subsurface 53 

Kitchen-garden 72 

Lakes 32 


102  Index. 


PAGE 


Malaria 80 

Moses,  method  of 97 

Mosquitoes 79,  80 

Anopheles 80 

Mosquito  warfare,  methods  of 80 

"Old  wells" 37 

Outbuildings 74 

Pennsylvania  fireplace 27 

Phthisis 7 

Plateau,  Appalachian 39 

Rain-water,  storage  of 91 

Receptacles  for  collecting  waste 57 

Rivers 32 

Rubbish,  disposal  of 57 

non-combustible 63 

combustible 63 

Ruskin,  John,  quoted 41 

Sandstone,  beds  of n 

Sewage,  surface  irrigation  of 50 

subsurface  irrigation  of 53 

Shale,  beds  of 1 1 

Site,  preparation  of 13 

Springs 30 


Index.  103 

PAGE 

Stable,  the 74,  77 

Stable,  air-space  of 78 

Stable  manure,  the  disposal  of 77 

Susquehanna  River 32 

Typhoid  fever 29,  74,  84,  86 

Upland  brook,  the 35 

Vegetable  bed 69,  72 

waste-destroying  properties  of 70 

Waste  disposal 47 

Waste,  receptacles  for  collecting 57 

Waste-water,  disposal  of 69 

Waring,  Col,  on  foundations 17 

Water-supply,  sources  of 30 

purification  of 40 

Wells 36 

Artesian 38 

deep 38 


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